bitpie钱包app下载中文版|al

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bitpie钱包app下载中文版|al

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2024-03-11 02:39:30

Al Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster

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Est. 1828

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AL Definition & Usage Examples | Dictionary.com

GamesDaily CrosswordWord PuzzleWord FinderAll gamesFeaturedWord of the DaySynonym of the DayWord of the YearNew wordsLanguage storiesAll featuredPop cultureSlangEmojiMemesAcronymsGender and sexualityAll pop cultureWriting tipsGrammar Coach™Writing hubGrammar essentialsCommonly confusedAll writing tipsGamesFeaturedPop cultureWriting tipsal[ ahl ]show ipanounIndian mulberry. Origin of al1From the Hindi word ālWords Nearby alAkureAkureyriAkutagawaakvavitAkwa IbomalalaAlabamaAlabamianalabaminealabanditeOther definitions for Al (2 of 15)Al1[ al ]show ipanouna male given name: form of Albert, Alfred, Aloysius. Other definitions for Al (3 of 15)Al2Symbol, Chemistry.aluminum.Other definitions for AL (4 of 15)ALabbreviationAlabama (approved especially for use with zip code).Anglo-Latin. Other definitions for à l' (5 of 15)à l'form of à la used for either gender before a vowel or h.Other definitions for al- (6 of 15)al-variant of ad- before l: allure.Other definitions for Al- (7 of 15)Al-a word in Arabic names meaning “family” or “the house of”: Al-Saud, or the members of the house of Saud.Origin of Al-7From the Arabic word āl familyOther definitions for -al (8 of 15)-al1a suffix with the general sense “of the kind of, pertaining to, having the form or character of” that named by the stem, occurring in loanwords from Latin (autumnal; natural; pastoral), and productive in English on the Latin model, usually with bases of Latin origin (accidental; seasonal; tribal). Originally, -al1 was restricted to stems not containing an -l- (cf. -ar1); recent lapses in this rule have produced semantically distinct pairs, as familiar and familial.Origin of -al8

Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2024How to use al in a sentenceGreat magic shops like al’s connect the magic community in ways the online marketplace can never replicate.Al Cohen, D.C. magic shop proprietor who knew all the tricks, dies at 94 | Matt Schudel | December 18, 2020 | Washington PostIt was the beating heart to a community of magicians that would sometimes travel for hours to see al demonstrate the latest miracles.Al Cohen, D.C. magic shop proprietor who knew all the tricks, dies at 94 | Matt Schudel | December 18, 2020 | Washington PostWhen taken as a whole, her essays read as fiction, a fitting bridge to journalism for a literature major who had just spent years absorbed in Hemingway, Mann, Joyce, Shakespeare, et al.World class: Remembering legendary travel writer Jan Morris | Liza Weisstuch | December 10, 2020 | Washington PostLot of tacos, lot of different styles of tacos, lasagna, meatballs, carbonara, cacio e pepe, al pastor, carne asade, achiote chicken, made some clam chowder — at the beginning.Guy Fieri on Why Restaurant Workers Need Our Support | Raisa Bruner | June 23, 2020 | TimeThe influential al Qaeda propagandist, who was born in New Mexico, died in a U.S. drone strike later that year.France Kills Charlie Hebdo Murderers | Nico Hines | January 9, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTThe al Qaeda-linked gunmen shot back, but only managed to injure one officer before they were taken out.France Kills Charlie Hebdo Murderers | Nico Hines | January 9, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTAccording to a Yemeni intelligence source, Saïd met with the notorious U.S. preacher Anwar al Awlaki.France Kills Charlie Hebdo Murderers | Nico Hines | January 9, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTTwo witnesses outside the Charlie Hebdo office building quoted the Kouachi brothers claiming they were members of al Qaeda.France Mourns—and Hunts | Nico Hines, Christopher Dickey | January 8, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTThere is a particular focus in the magazine on attacking the United States, which al Qaeda calls a top target.U.S. Spies See Al Qaeda Fingerprints on Paris Massacre | Shane Harris, Nancy A. Youssef | January 8, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTWhen the exact sense was lost, the suffix -al seemed to be adjectival, and the word dismal became at last an adjective.Chaucer's Works, Volume 1 (of 7) -- Romaunt of the Rose; Minor Poems | Geoffrey ChaucerThe Provençal has not even the formal distinction of the nouns in al, which in French make their plural in aux.Frdric Mistral | Charles Alfred DownerThe emphatic al places the alchemist as much above the ordinary chemist as the gold which he obtains is superior to other metals.A Philosophical Dictionary, Volume 1 (of 10) | Franois-Marie Arouet (AKA Voltaire)So also:—'Tempest thee nat thus with al thy fortune'; Boeth.Chaucer's Works, Volume 1 (of 7) -- Romaunt of the Rose; Minor Poems | Geoffrey Chaucer"No al fresco dining tonight," said John, as the darkening sky was veined by a sudden spray of blue-green light.The Medici Boots | Pearl Norton SwetSee More ExamplesBritish Dictionary definitions for al (1 of 6)althe internet domain name forAlbaniaBritish Dictionary definitions for Al (2 of 6)Althe chemical symbol foraluminiumBritish Dictionary definitions for AL (3 of 6)ALabbreviation forAlabamaAnglo-Latin(in the US and Canada) American League (of baseball teams)Albania (international car registration)See moreBritish Dictionary definitions for -al (4 of 6)-al1suffix forming adjectivesof; related to; connected with: functional; sectional; tonalOrigin of -al4from Latin -ālisBritish Dictionary definitions for -al (5 of 6)-al2suffix forming nounsthe act or process of doing what is indicated by the verb stem: rebuttal; recital; renewalOrigin of -al5via Old French -aille, -ail, from Latin -ālia, neuter plural used as substantive, from -ālis -al 1British Dictionary definitions for -al (6 of 6)-al3suffix forming nounsindicating an aldehyde: ethanalindicating a pharmaceutical product: phenobarbitalOrigin of -al6shortened from aldehydeCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition

Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012Scientific definitions for AlAlThe American Heritage® Science Dictionary

Copyright © 2011. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.Browse#aabbccddeeffgghhiijjkkllmmnnooppqqrrssttuuvvwwxxyyzzAboutCareersShopContact usAdvertise with usCookies, terms, & privacyDo not sell my infoFollow usGet the Word of the Day every day!Sign upBy clicking "Sign Up", you are accepting Dictionary.com Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policies.My account© 2024 Dictionary.com, LLC

Alabama - Wikipedia

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(Top)

1Etymology

2History

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2.1Pre-European settlement

2.2European settlement

2.319th century

2.3.1Civil War and Reconstruction

2.420th century

2.521st century

3Geography

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3.1Climate

3.2Flora and fauna

3.3Census-designated and metropolitan areas

3.4Cities

4Demographics

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4.1Ancestry

4.2Language

4.3Religion

4.4Health

5Economy

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5.1Largest employers

5.2Agriculture

5.3Aquaculture

5.4Industry

5.5Tourism and entertainment

5.6Healthcare

5.7Banking

5.8Electronics and communications

5.9Construction

6Law and government

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6.1State government

6.2Taxes

6.3County and local governments

6.4Politics

6.5Elections

6.5.1State elections

6.5.2Local elections

6.5.3Federal elections

7Education

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7.1Primary and secondary education

7.2Colleges and universities

8Media

9Culture

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9.1Literature

9.2Sports

9.2.1Professional sports

9.2.2College sports

10Transportation

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10.1Aviation

10.2Rail

10.3Roads

10.4Ports

11See also

12Notes

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12.1Subnotes

12.2Other notes

13References

14Further reading

15External links

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Alabama

203 languages

AfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛAnarâškielâÆngliscالعربيةAragonésܐܪܡܝܐArpetanAsturianuAvañe'ẽAymar aruAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهBasa BaliবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБашҡортсаБеларускаяБеларуская (тарашкевіца)भोजपुरीBikol CentralBislamaБългарскиBoarischབོད་ཡིགBosanskiBrezhonegБуряадCatalàЧӑвашлаCebuanoČeštinaChavacano de ZamboangaCorsuCymraegDagbanliDanskالدارجةDavvisámegiellaDeutschDiné bizaadEestiΕλληνικάEmiliàn e rumagnòlEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFiji HindiFøroysktFrançaisFryskFurlanGaeilgeGaelgGagauzGàidhligGalego贛語گیلکیગુજરાતી客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어HausaHawaiʻiՀայերենहिन्दीHornjoserbsceHrvatskiIdoIgboIlokanoবিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরীBahasa IndonesiaInterlinguaInterlingueᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitutIñupiatunИронIsiXhosaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaKabɩyɛಕನ್ನಡKapampanganქართულიҚазақшаKernowekKiswahiliKreyòl ayisyenKurdîКыргызчаКырык марыLadinLadinoLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLigureLimburgsLingua Franca NovaLa .lojban.LombardMagyarमैथिलीМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംMāoriमराठीმარგალურიمصرىمازِرونیBahasa Melayuꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟMinangkabau閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄MirandésМонголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsNedersaksiesनेपालीनेपाल भाषा日本語NapulitanoНохчийнNordfriiskNorsk bokmålNorsk nynorskOccitanОлык марийOʻzbekcha / ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀपालिپنجابیPapiamentuپښتوPicardPiemontèisPlattdüütschPolskiPortuguêsQaraqalpaqshaQırımtatarcaRomânăRumantschRuna SimiРусскийСаха тылаGagana Samoaसंस्कृतम्SarduScotsSeelterskShqipSicilianuසිංහලSimple EnglishسنڌيSlovenčinaSlovenščinaŚlůnskiSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски / srpskiSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்TaqbaylitТатарча / tatarçaతెలుగుไทยТоҷикӣᏣᎳᎩTürkçeTürkmençeУкраїнськаاردوئۇيغۇرچە / UyghurcheVahcuenghVènetoTiếng ViệtVolapük文言West-VlamsWinaray吴语ייִדישYorùbá粵語ZazakiZeêuwsŽemaitėška中文Tolışi

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Coordinates: 33°N 87°W / 33°N 87°W / 33; -87 (State of Alabama)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

U.S. state

This article is about the U.S. state. For the river, see Alabama River. For other uses, see Alabama (disambiguation).

State in the United StatesAlabamaStateState of Alabama

FlagSealNicknames: the Yellowhammer State, the Heart of Dixie, the Cotton StateMotto(s): Latin: Audemus jura nostra defendere(We dare defend our rights)Anthem: "Alabama"Map of the United States with Alabama highlightedCountryUnited StatesBefore statehoodAlabama TerritoryAdmitted to the UnionDecember 14, 1819 (22nd)CapitalMontgomeryLargest cityHuntsvilleLargest county or equivalentJeffersonLargest metro and urban areasGreater BirminghamGovernment • GovernorKay Ivey (R) • Lieutenant GovernorWill Ainsworth (R)LegislatureAlabama Legislature • Upper houseSenate • Lower houseHouse of RepresentativesJudiciarySupreme Court of AlabamaU.S. senatorsTommy Tuberville (R)Katie Britt (R)U.S. House delegation6 Republicans1 Democrat (list)Area • Total52,419 sq mi (135,765 km2) • Land50,744 sq mi (131,426 km2) • Water1,675 sq mi (4,338 km2) 3.2% • Rank30thDimensions • Length330 mi (531 km) • Width190 mi (305 km)Elevation500 ft (150 m)Highest elevation (Mount Cheaha[1][2][a])2,413 ft (735.5 m)Lowest elevation (Gulf of Mexico[2])0 ft (0 m)Population (2021) • Total5,039,877[3] • Rank24th • Density99.1/sq mi (38.4/km2) • Rank27th • Median household income$52,000[4] • Income rank46th[5]Demonym(s)Alabamian,[6] Alabaman[7]Language • Official languageEnglish • Spoken languageAs of 2010[update][8]

English 95.1%

Spanish 3.1%

Time zonesEntire state (legally)UTC– 06:00 (Central) • Summer (DST)UTC– 05:00 (CDT)Phenix City area (unofficially)UTC– 05:00 (Eastern) • Summer (DST)UTC– 04:00 (EDT)USPS abbreviationALISO 3166 codeUS-ALTraditional abbreviationAla.Latitude30°11' N to 35° NLongitude84°53' W to 88°28' WWebsitealabama.gov

State symbols of AlabamaList of state symbolsFlag of AlabamaSeal of AlabamaCoat of arms of AlabamaSloganShare The Wonder,Alabama the beautiful,Where America finds its voice,Sweet Home AlabamaLiving insigniaAmphibianRed Hills salamanderBirdYellowhammer, wild turkeyButterflyEastern tiger swallowtailFishLargemouth bass, fighting tarponFlowerCamellia, oak-leaf hydrangeaHorse breedRacking horseInsectMonarch butterflyMammalAmerican black bearReptileAlabama red-bellied turtleTreeLongleaf pineInanimate insigniaBeverageConecuh Ridge WhiskeyColor(s)Red, whiteDanceSquare danceFoodPecan, blackberry, peachFossilBasilosaurusGemstoneStar blue quartzMineralHematiteRockMarbleShellJohnstone's junoniaSoilBamaState route markerState quarterReleased in 2003Lists of United States state symbols

Interactive map

Alabama (/ˌæləˈbæmə/ AL-ə-BAM-ə)[9] is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area[10] and the 24th-most populous of the 50 U.S. states.[11]

Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State". The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville.[12] Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists (Alabama Creoles) in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana.[13][14] Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center.[15]

Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868. Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the state's economy. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws from the late 19th century up until the 1960s. High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

During and after World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville would help Alabama's economic growth in the mid-to-late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology.[16]

The state has diverse geography, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay, a historically significant port. Politically, as part of the Deep South, Alabama is predominantly a conservative state, and is known for its Southern culture. Within Alabama, American football, particularly at the college level, plays a major part of the state's culture.

Etymology

The European-American naming of the Alabama River and state was derived from the Alabama people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river.[17] In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo (or variously Albaama or Albàamo in different dialects; the plural form is Albaamaha).[18] The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources.[19] The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used Alibamo, while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively, in transliterations of the term.[19] As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, with French maps identifying the river as Rivière des Alibamons.[17] Other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, and Allibamou.[19][20][21] The use of state names derived from Native American languages is common in the U.S.; an estimated 26 states have names of Native American origin.[22]

Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') and amo (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', or 'to gather').[19][23][24] The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket'[23] or 'herb gatherers',[24][25] referring to clearing land for cultivation[20] or collecting medicinal plants.[25] The state has numerous place names of Native American origin.[26][27]

An 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'.[19] This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek.[19] Experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation.[17][19]

History

Main article: History of Alabama

Pre-European settlement

The Moundville Archaeological Site in Hale County. It was occupied by Native Americans of the Mississippian culture from 1000 to 1450 CE.

Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization. Trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000 BCE – 700 CE) and continued until European contact.[28]

The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 CE, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama.[29][30] This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC).[31] Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood.[32]

Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee, an Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama (Alibamu), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Koasati.[33] While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages.

European settlement

Main articles: New France, Louisiana (New France), French and Indian War, Treaty of Paris (1763), New Spain, Louisiana (New Spain), West Florida, Indian Reserve (1763), American Revolutionary War, Treaty of Paris (1783), Spanish West Florida, Seminole Wars, Adams–Onís Treaty, Republic of West Florida, and Mississippi Territory

The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702.[34] The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane.[35]

After the French lost to the British in the Seven Years' War, it became part of British West Florida from 1763 to 1783. After the United States victory in the American Revolutionary War, the territory was divided between the United States and Spain. The latter retained control of this western territory from 1783 until the surrender of the Spanish garrison at Mobile to U.S. forces on April 13, 1813.[35][36]

Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s.[37] The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County.[38][39]

What are now Baldwin and Mobile counties became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783, part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, and finally part of the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed.[40][41]

With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal.[41][42] Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the United States in 1819.[36]

19th century

Main articles: Organic act § List of organic acts, Alabama Territory, Admission to the Union, and List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union

Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory. The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. St. Stephens, now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819.[43]

Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July 5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County.[44]

Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825.[45] The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation.[46][47] Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men.[48]

The main house, built in 1833, at Thornhill in Greene County. It is a former Black Belt plantation.

Southeastern planters and traders from the Upper South brought slaves with them as the cotton plantations in Alabama expanded. The economy of the central Black Belt (named for its dark, productive soil) was built around large cotton plantations whose owners' wealth grew mainly from slave labor.[48] The area also drew many poor, disenfranchised people who became subsistence farmers. Alabama had an estimated population of under 10,000 people in 1810, but it increased to more than 300,000 people by 1830.[46] Most Native American tribes were completely removed from the state within a few years of the passage of the Indian Removal Act by Congress in 1830.[49]

From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847.[50] A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine.[51][52]

Civil War and Reconstruction

Main articles: Ordinance of Secession, Confederate States of America, and Alabama in the American Civil War

By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color.[53] On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort.

Union Army troops occupying Courthouse Square in Huntsville, following its capture and occupation by federal forces in 1864

A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coattails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army.[54]

Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865.[55] Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier.[56]

Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During Reconstruction, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation.[56] Organized insurgent, resistance groups tried to suppress the freedmen and Republicans. Besides the short-lived original Ku Klux Klan, these included the Pale Faces, Knights of the White Camellia, Red Shirts, and the White League.[56]

Reconstruction in Alabama ended in 1874, when the Democrats regained control of the legislature and governor's office through an election dominated by fraud and violence. They wrote another constitution in 1875,[56] and the legislature passed the Blaine Amendment, prohibiting public money from being used to finance religious-affiliated schools.[57] The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools.[58] Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891.[58]

20th century

The developing skyline of Birmingham in 1915

The new 1901 Constitution of Alabama included provisions for voter registration that effectively disenfranchised large portions of the population, including nearly all African Americans and Native Americans, and tens of thousands of poor European Americans, through making voter registration difficult, requiring a poll tax and literacy test.[59] The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades.[60] The state legislature passed additional racial segregation laws related to public facilities into the 1950s: jails were segregated in 1911; hospitals in 1915; toilets, hotels, and restaurants in 1928; and bus stop waiting rooms in 1945.[58]

While the planter class had persuaded poor whites to vote for this legislative effort to suppress black voting, the new restrictions resulted in their disenfranchisement as well, due mostly to the imposition of a cumulative poll tax.[60] By 1941, whites constituted a slight majority of those disenfranchised by these laws: 600,000 whites vs. 520,000 African Americans.[60] Nearly all Blacks had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens.[61]

The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes.[48] Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama, these schools were designed, and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well.[62]

The former Mount Sinai School in rural Autauga County, completed in 1919. It was one of the 387 Rosenwald Schools built in the state.

Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[62]

Continued racial discrimination and lynchings, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of African Americans from rural Alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the Great Migration out of the South.[63][64] Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920.[65]

At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the "Magic City".[66] By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States.[67] Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order.[68]

Beginning in the 1940s, when the courts started taking the first steps to recognize the voting rights of black voters, the Alabama legislature took several counter-steps designed to disfranchise black voters. The legislature passed, and the voters ratified [as these were mostly white voters], a state constitutional amendment that gave local registrars greater latitude to disqualify voter registration applicants. Black citizens in Mobile successfully challenged this amendment as a violation of the Fifteenth Amendment. The legislature also changed the boundaries of Tuskegee to a 28-sided figure designed to fence out blacks from the city limits. The Supreme Court unanimously held that this racial "gerrymandering" violated the Constitution. In 1961, ... the Alabama legislature also intentionally diluted the effect of the black vote by instituting numbered place requirements for local elections.[69]

Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war.[48] Rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. One example of this massive influx of workers occurred in Mobile. Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into the city to work for war-related industries.[70] Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base.

Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature."[68][71]

In the United States Supreme Court cases of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties.[72][73]

African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation.[74][75] The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches.[76] These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress.[77][78]

Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court.[79] According to The New York Times, by 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry."[80]

In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years.[71] Other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts.

Alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. In the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, Dillard v. Crenshaw County, challenged the at-large voting for representative seats of 180 Alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. At-large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. Despite African Americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at-large jurisdictions.[69]

As part of settlement of this case, five Alabama cities and counties, including Chilton County, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi-seat jurisdictions. This has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. In another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in Conecuh County. In 1982, limited voting was first tested in Conecuh County. Together use of these systems has increased the number of African Americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens.[81]

Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011.[82] However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida.[83]

21st century

In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th US Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003.[84]

A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history.[85] A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities.[86]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Alabama

See also: List of Alabama counties and Geology of Alabama

Map of Alabama from the National Atlas of the United States (2007)

Ono Island in Baldwin County

Monte Sano State Park in Huntsville

Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County

Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with 52,419 square miles (135,760 km2) of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States.[87] About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain, a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.[88]

Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state.[88] The state ranges in elevation from sea level[89] at Mobile Bay to more than 2,000 feet (610 m) in the northeast, to Mount Cheaha[88] at 2,413 ft (735 m).[90]

Alabama's land consists of 22 million acres (89,000 km2) of forest or 67% of the state's total land area.[91] Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area.[92]

The Natural Bridge Rock in Winston County is the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies.

Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee.[93] Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B. Bankhead.[94] Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail.

Notable natural wonders include: the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, located just south of Haleyville; Cathedral Caverns in Marshall County, named for its cathedral-like appearance, features one of the largest cave entrances and stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge in Fairhope, the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico;[95] DeSoto Caverns in Childersburg, the first officially recorded cave in the United States;[96] Noccalula Falls in Gadsden features a 90-foot waterfall; Dismals Canyon near Phil Campbell, home to two waterfalls, six natural bridges and allegedly served as a hideout for legendary outlaw Jesse James;[97] Stephens Gap Cave in Jackson County boasts a 143-foot pit, two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America;[98] Little River Canyon near Fort Payne, one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns near Warrior features an underground pool, blind cave fish and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the Walls of Jericho canyon on the Alabama-Tennessee state line.

Cliffs at the rim of the Wetumpka meteorite crater

A 5-mile (8 km)-wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A 1,000-foot (300 m)-wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago.[99] The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface.[100] In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth.[101]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Alabama

The state is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Koppen Climate Classification.[102] The average annual temperature is 64 °F (18 °C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler.[103] Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of 56 inches (1,400 mm) of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state.[103]

Summers in Alabama are among the hottest in the U.S., with high temperatures averaging over 90 °F (32 °C) throughout the summer in some parts of the state. Alabama is also prone to tropical storms and hurricanes. Areas of the state far away from the Gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken.

South Alabama reports many thunderstorms. The Gulf Coast, around Mobile Bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. This activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. Occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. Alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita.[104]

Tornado damage in Phil Campbell following the statewide April 27, 2011, tornado outbreak

Alabama, along with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013.[105] Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62.[106]

The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains.

Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around 40 °F (4 °C) in Mobile and around 32 °F (0 °C) in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is 2 inches (51 mm) per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall.

Alabama's highest temperature of 112 °F (44 °C) was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of Centerville. The record low of −27 °F (−33 °C) occurred on January 30, 1966, in New Market.[107]

Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Alabama cities [°F (°C)]

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

HuntsvilleBirminghamMontgomeryMobileclass=notpageimage| Cities in Alabama

Huntsville[108]

Average high

48.9(9.4)

54.6(12.6)

63.4(17.4)

72.3(22.4)

79.6(26.4)

86.5(30.3)

89.4(31.9)

89.0(31.7)

83.0(28.3)

72.9(22.7)

61.6(16.4)

52.4(11.3)

71.1(21.7)

Average low

30.7(-0.7)

34.0(1.1)

41.2(5.1)

48.4(9.1)

57.5(14.2)

65.4(18.6)

69.5(20.8)

68.1(20.1)

61.7(16.5)

49.6(9.8)

40.7(4.8)

33.8(1.0)

50.1(10.1)

Birmingham[109]

Average high

52.8(11.6)

58.3(14.6)

66.5(19.2)

74.1(23.4)

81.0(27.2)

87.5(30.8)

90.6(32.6)

90.2(32.3)

84.6(29.2)

74.9(23.8)

64.5(18.1)

56.0(13.3)

73.4(23.0)

Average low

32.3(0.2)

35.4(1.9)

42.4(5.8)

48.4(9.1)

57.6(14.2)

65.4(18.6)

69.7(20.9)

68.9(20.5)

63.0(17.2)

50.9(10.5)

41.8(5.4)

35.2(1.8)

50.9(10.5)

Montgomery [110]

Average high

57.6(14.2)

62.4(16.9)

70.5(21.4)

77.5(25.3)

84.6(29.2)

90.6(32.6)

92.7(33.7)

92.2(33.4)

87.7(30.9)

78.7(25.9)

68.7(20.4)

60.3(15.7)

77.0(25.0)

Average low

35.5(1.9)

38.6(3.7)

45.4(7.4)

52.1(11.2)

60.1(15.6)

67.3(19.6)

70.9(21.6)

70.1(21.2)

64.9(18.3)

52.2(11.2)

43.5(6.4)

37.6(3.1)

53.2(11.8)

Mobile[111]

Average high

60.7(15.9)

64.5(18.1)

71.2(21.8)

77.4(25.2)

84.2(29.0)

89.4(31.9)

91.2(32.9)

90.8(32.7)

86.8(30.4)

79.2(26.2)

70.1(21.2)

62.9(17.2)

77.4(25.2)

Average low

39.5(4.2)

42.4(5.8)

49.2(9.6)

54.8(12.7)

62.8(17.1)

69.2(20.7)

71.8(22.1)

71.7(22.0)

67.6(19.8)

56.3(13.5)

47.8(8.8)

41.6(5.3)

56.2(13.4)

Flora and fauna

Main articles: List of amphibians of Alabama, List of mammals of Alabama, List of reptiles of Alabama, and Trees of Alabama

A stand of Cahaba lilies (Hymenocallis coronaria) in the Cahaba River, within the Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge

Alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna in habitats that range from the Tennessee Valley, Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians of the north to the Piedmont, Canebrake, and Black Belt of the central region to the Gulf Coastal Plain and beaches along the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity.[112][113]

Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state.[112] It currently ranks fifth in the nation for the diversity of its flora. It is home to nearly 4,000 pteridophyte and spermatophyte plant species.[114]

Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species,[115] 93 reptile species,[116] 73 amphibian species,[117] roughly 307 native freshwater fish species,[112] and 420 bird species that spend at least part of their year within the state.[118] Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state.[119][120]

Census-designated and metropolitan areas

Main article: List of metropolitan areas of Alabama

Combined statistical areas[121]

Rank

Combined statistical area

Population (2021 estimate)

Population (2020 census)

Birmingham–Hoover–Talladega

1,350,646

1,290,744

Chattanooga–Cleveland–Dalton[CSA 1]

1,000,303

951,434

Mobile–Daphne–Fairhope

661,964

612,838

Huntsville–Decatur–Albertville

648,217

571,422

Columbus–Auburn–Opelika[CSA 2]

503,124

448,035

Dothan–Enterprise–Ozark

200,333

195,890

^ In Alabama, only Jackson County (2019 population: 51,626; 2010 population: 53,227) is included in the Chattanooga CSA

^ In Alabama, only Lee, Russell, and Chambers Counties (total 2019 population: 255,757; total 2010 population: 227,409) are included in the Columbus CSA

Metropolitan areas[121]

Rank

Metropolitan area

Population (2021 estimate)

Population (2020 census)

Birmingham–Hoover

1,114,262

1,115,289

Huntsville

502,728

491,723

Mobile

429,536

430,573

Montgomery

385,798

386,047

Tuscaloosa

268,191

268,674

Daphne–Fairhope–Foley

239,294

231,767

Auburn–Opelika

177,218

174,241

Decatur

156,758

156,494

Dothan

151,618

151,007

Florence–Muscle Shoals

147,970

147,137

Anniston–Oxford–Jacksonville

115,972

116,441

Gadsden

103,162

103,436

Cities

Main article: List of cities and towns in Alabama

Statue of Liberty replica at Liberty Park in Vestavia Hills

Dauphin Street in Mobile

Lighthouse on Guntersville Lake

Largest cities[12]

Rank

City

Population(2020 census)

County(ies)

Huntsville

221,933

Madison, Limestone, Morgan

Montgomery

196,986

Montgomery

Birmingham

196,910

Jefferson, Shelby

Mobile

183,289

Mobile

Tuscaloosa

110,602

Tuscaloosa

Hoover

92,435

Jefferson, Shelby

Auburn

80,006

Lee

Dothan

71,235

Houston, Dale, Henry

Madison

59,785

Madison, Limestone

Decatur

57,922

Morgan, Limestone

Florence

41,690

Lauderdale

Prattville

38,776

Autauga, Elmore

Vestavia Hills

38,292

Jefferson, Shelby

Phenix City

38,267

Russell

Alabaster

33,945

Shelby

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Alabama

Alabama's population density, 2010

Historical population

CensusPop.Note%±

18001,250—18109,046623.7%1820144,317[122]1,495.4%1830309,527114.5%1840590,75690.9%1850771,62330.6%1860964,20125.0%1870996,9923.4%18801,262,50526.6%18901,513,40119.9%19001,828,69720.8%19102,138,09316.9%19202,348,1749.8%19302,646,24812.7%19402,832,9617.1%19503,061,7438.1%19603,266,7406.7%19703,444,1655.4%19803,893,88813.1%19904,040,5873.8%20004,447,10010.1%20104,779,7367.5%20205,024,2795.1%2022 (est.)5,074,2961.0%Sources: 1910–2020[123]

Ethnic origins in Alabama

Map of counties in Alabama by racial plurality, per the 2020 census Legend Non-Hispanic White 40–50% 50–60% 60–70% 70–80% 80–90% 90%+ Black or African American 40–50% 50–60% 70–80% 80–90%

According to the 2020 United States census the population of Alabama was 5,024,279 on April 1, 2020, which represents an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, since the 2010 census.[124] This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state.[125]

Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people.[125] The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were undocumented (24,000). The top countries of origin for immigrants were Mexico, China, India, Guatemala and Germany in 2018.[126]

The center of population of Alabama is located in Chilton County, outside the town of Jemison.[127]

According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 3,752 homeless people in Alabama.[128][129]

Ancestry

Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census

Race and ethnicity[130]

Alone

Total

White (non-Hispanic)

63.1%

63.1

66.5%

66.5

African American (non-Hispanic)

25.6%

25.6

26.9%

26.9

Hispanic or Latino[b]

—

5.3%

5.3

Asian

1.5%

1.5

2.0%

Native American

0.5%

0.5

2.2%

2.2

Pacific Islander

0.1%

0.1

0.1%

0.1

Other

0.3%

0.3

0.8%

0.8

Historical racial demographics 1990–2010

Racial and ethnic composition

1990[131]

2000[132]

2010[133]

White

73.6%

71.1%

68.5%

Black

25.3%

26%

26.2%

Asian

0.5%

0.7%

1.1%

Native

0.4%

0.5%

0.6%

Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander

—

0.1%

Other race

0.1%

0.6%

Two or more races

—

1.5%

Those citing "American" ancestry in Alabama are of overwhelmingly English extraction. Demographers estimate that a minimum of 20–23% of people in Alabama are of predominantly English ancestry and state that the figure is probably much higher. In the 1980 census 1,139,976 people in Alabama cited that they were of English ancestry out of a total state population of 2,824,719 making them 41% of the state at the time and the largest ethnic group.[134][135][136]

Alabama has the 5th highest African American population among US states at 25.8% as of 2020.[137] In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age 1 were minorities.[138] The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama are American (13.4%), Irish (10.5%), English (10.2%), German (7.9%), and Scots-Irish (2.5%) based on 2006–2008 Census data.[139]

The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed.[140]

In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission.[141] Native American groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast. These are the following.[142]

Poarch Band of Creek Indians (who also have federal recognition)

MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians

Star Clan of Muscogee Creeks

Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama

Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama

Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians

Ma-Chis Lower Creek Indian Tribe

Piqua Shawnee Tribe

Ani-Yun-Wiya Nation

The state government has promoted recognition of Native American contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day.[143]

Language

Most Alabama residents (95.1% of those five and older) spoke only English at home in 2010, a minor decrease from 96.1% in 2000.

Top non-English languages spoken in Alabama

Language

Percentage of population(as of 2010[update])[citation needed]

Spanish

2.2%

German

0.4%

French (incl. Patois, Cajun)

0.3%

Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, Arabic, African languages, Japanese, and Italian (tied)

0.1%

Religion

Highlands United Methodist Church in Birmingham, part of the Five Points South Historic District

Temple B'Nai Sholom in Huntsville, established in 1876. It is the oldest synagogue building in continuous use in the state.

The Islamic Center of Tuscaloosa

In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion.[144] The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu.[145]

Religious affiliation in Alabama (2014)[146]

Affiliation

% of population

Christian

Protestant

Evangelical Protestant

Mainline Protestant

Black church

Catholic

Mormon

Jehovah's Witnesses

0.1

Eastern Orthodox

0.1

Other Christian

0.1

Unaffiliated

Nothing in particular

Agnostic

Atheist

Non-Christian faiths

Jewish

0.2

Muslim

0.2

Buddhist

0.2

Hindu

0.2

Other Non-Christian faiths

0.2

Don't know/refused answer

Total

100

Further information on Christianity in Alabama: History of Baptists in Alabama, List of Baptist churches in Alabama, Episcopal Diocese of Alabama, Episcopal Diocese of the Central Gulf Coast, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile, Roman Catholic Diocese of Birmingham in Alabama, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Alabama

Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly.[147] A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. As of 2010[update], the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant.[148]

In Alabama, the Southern Baptist Convention has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members, the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members. The Presbyterian churches, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 (PCA—28,009 members in 108 congregations, PC(USA)—26,247 members in 147 congregations,[149] the Cumberland Presbyterian Church—6,000 members in 59 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America—5,000 members and fifty congregations plus the EPC and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations).[150]

In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning.[151] In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state.[152][153]

Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Unitarian Universalism.[150]

Jews have been present in what is now Alabama since 1763, during the colonial era of Mobile, when Sephardic Jews immigrated from London.[154] The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844.[154] Later immigrants in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries tended to be Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe. Jewish denominations in the state include two Orthodox, four Conservative, ten Reform, and one Humanistic synagogue.[155]

Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts.[156]

Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa.[157][158]

There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists.[159] Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter.[160] The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan.[161][162][163]

The first community of adherents of the Baháʼí Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to Fairhope. Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, and Florence.[164]

Health

In 2018, life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and gun crimes.[165]

A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%.[166] Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time.[167] Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults.[168][169]

Economy

See also: Economy of Alabama and Alabama locations by per capita income

The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5 billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates.[170]

The Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail has a large economic impact on the state.

Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving.[16]

The Riverchase Galleria in Hoover, one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast

According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2008 total gross state product was $170 billion, or $29,411 per capita. Alabama's 2012 GDP increased 1.2% from the previous year. The single largest increase came in the area of information.[171] In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984.[172]

The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015.[173] This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%.[174]

Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham city ordinance would have raised theirs to $10.10.)[175]

As of 2018[update], Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S.[176] In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world.[177]

Largest employers

The Space Shuttle Enterprise being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center in 1978

Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama in Montgomery in 2010

Shelby Hall, School of Computing, at the University of South Alabama in Mobile

The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were:[178]

Employer

Employees

Redstone Arsenal

25,373

University of Alabama at Birmingham (includes UAB Hospital)

18,750

Maxwell Air Force Base

12,280

State of Alabama

9,500

Mobile County Public School System

8,100

The next twenty largest employers, as of 2011[update], included:[179]

Employer

Location

Anniston Army Depot

Anniston

AT&T

Multiple

Auburn University

Auburn

Baptist Medical Center South

Montgomery

Birmingham City Schools

Birmingham

City of Birmingham

Birmingham

DCH Health System

Tuscaloosa

Huntsville City Schools

Huntsville

Huntsville Hospital System

Huntsville

Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama

Montgomery

Infirmary Health System

Mobile

Jefferson County Board of Education

Birmingham

Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville

Mercedes-Benz U.S. International

Vance

Montgomery Public Schools

Montgomery

Regions Financial Corporation

Multiple

Boeing

Multiple

University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa

University of South Alabama

Mobile

Walmart

Multiple

Agriculture

Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports,[180][181] with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three.

Aquaculture

Aquaculture is a large part of the economy of Alabama.[182] Alabamians began to practice aquaculture in the early 1960s.[183] U.S. farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America.[184] By 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed by the catfish industry and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish.[182] In 2020, Alabama produced 1⁄3 of the United States' farm-raised catfish.[184] The total 2020 sales of catfish raised in Alabama equaled $307 million but by 2020 the total employment of Alabamians fell to 2,442.[184]

From the early 2000s to 2020, the Alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms and 4 processors to 66 farms and 2 processors.[184] Reasons for this decline include increased feed prices, catfish alternatives, COVID-19's impact on restaurant sales, disease, and fish size.[184]

Industry

Alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products (including cast-iron and steel pipe); paper, lumber, and wood products; mining (mostly coal); plastic products; cars and trucks; and apparel. In addition, Alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the Huntsville area, the location of NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Army Materiel Command, headquartered at Redstone Arsenal.

Mercedes-Benz U.S. International in Tuscaloosa County was the first automotive facility to locate within the state.

A great deal of Alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. Located in the state are Honda Manufacturing of Alabama, Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama, Mercedes-Benz U.S. International, and Toyota Motor Manufacturing Alabama, as well as their various suppliers. Since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67,800 new jobs in the state. Alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports.[185]

Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012.[186] The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck.[187]

Airbus Mobile Engineering Center at the Brookley Aeroplex in Mobile

Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and U.S. Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65 billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility.[188] ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012.[189] The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6 billion in March 2013. Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8 billion.[190] In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel.[191]

The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville.[192] JVC America, Inc. operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa.[193]

The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden which employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929.

Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017.b[194][195] The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States.[196] It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility.[197] The factory officially opened on September 14, 2015, covering one million square feet on 53 acres of flat grassland.[198]

Tourism and entertainment

Alabama's beaches are one of the state's major tourist destinations.

According to Business Insider, Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014.[199] An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 jobs in the state,[200] which includes 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million.[201]

The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual Hangout Music Festival, held on the public beaches of Gulf Shores; the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, one of the ten largest Shakespeare festivals in the world;[202] the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as Victoryland; amusement parks such as Alabama Splash Adventure; the Riverchase Galleria, one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; Guntersville Lake, voted the best lake in Alabama by Southern Living Magazine readers;[203] and the Alabama Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in the state.[204]

Mobile is the birthplace of Mardi Gras in the U.S.

Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703.[205] It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the United States in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day.[205] Mardi Gras is an official state holiday in Mobile and Baldwin counties.[206]

In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543,090. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors.[207]

Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments.[208] Movies filmed in Alabama include Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Get Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The Final Destination, Due Date, and Need for Speed.[209]

Healthcare

UAB Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only Level I trauma centers in Alabama.[210] UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000.[211] A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama having a market share of 84% followed by UnitedHealth Group at 7%.[212]

Banking

Regions-Harbert Plaza, Regions Center, and Wells Fargo Tower in Birmingham's financial district

Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in or operating in Alabama. PNC Financial Services and Wells Fargo also have a major presence in Alabama.[213]

Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400 million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation.

Electronics and communications

Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham.

Many technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as ADTRAN, a network access company; Intergraph, a computer graphics company; and Avocent, an IT infrastructure company.

Construction

Brasfield & Gorrie, BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L. Harbert International, based in Alabama and subsidiaries of URS Corporation, are all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms.

Law and government

State government

Main article: Government of Alabama

The State Capitol Building in Montgomery, completed in 1851

The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, the current one having been adopted in 2022.[clarification needed] The Alabama constitution adopted in 1901 was, with over 850 amendments and almost 87,000 words, by some accounts the world's longest constitution and roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution.[214][215][216][217]

There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution.[218] Critics have argued that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. The former constitution was particularly criticized for its complexity and length intentionally codifying segregation and racism.

The Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building in Montgomery. It houses the Supreme Court of Alabama, Alabama Court of Civil Appeals, and Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals.

Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto).

Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "one man, one vote", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems.

At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments.

Republican Kay Ivey is the governor of Alabama as of 2021.

The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the governor of Alabama. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama Secretary of State, the Alabama State Treasurer, and the State Auditor of Alabama. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey.

The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January.[219]

The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the Constitution of Alabama and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized.[220] The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate appellate courts, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four trial courts: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts.[220]

Alabama has the death penalty with authorized methods of execution that include the electric chair and the gas chamber.[221] Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions.[222] Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger.[223] However, executions per capita are significantly higher in Texas.[224] Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned[225] 24 convictions in death penalty cases.[citation needed] It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole that were voted unanimously by juries.[223] This judicial authority was removed in April 2017.[226]

On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act, banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and incest. The law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment.[227] The law was originally supposed to take effect the following November, but on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade.[228] On June 24, 2022, after the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, Judge Thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect.[229]

Alabama is one of the very few states that does not allow the creation of state lotteries.[230]

Taxes

Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue.[231] Alabama levies a 2%, 4%, or 5% personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status.[232] Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the standard deduction; those who itemize can also deduct FICA (the Social Security and Medicare tax).[233]

The state's general sales tax rate is 4%.[234] Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases.[235] For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile County, Alabama is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile County, Alabama would pay an 11% tax on a meal.

In 2020, sales and excise taxes in Alabama accounted for 38% of all state and local revenue.[236]

Only Alabama, Mississippi, and South Dakota tax groceries at the full state sales tax rate.[237]

The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country.[238]

Property taxes of .40% of assessed value per year, are the second-lowest in the U.S., after Hawaii.[239] The current state constitution requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes.

County and local governments

AL | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary

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Meaning of AL in English

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written abbreivation for the US state of Alabama: used in addresses

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Towns & regions: named regions of countries

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Aberdeenshire

Affrilachian

Alabama

Essex

fife

fl.

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-alsuffix uk

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/ -əl/ us

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/ -əl/

used to add the meaning "connected with" to adjectives, or "the action of" to nouns: medical (= connected with medicine) approval (= the act of approving)

SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases

Linking and relating

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applicable

around

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(Definition of AL from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)

What is the pronunciation of -al?

Translations of AL

in Chinese (Traditional)

（美國）阿拉巴馬州（寫地址時Alabama的縮寫）, （用作形容詞後綴）…的，與…有關的, （用作名詞後綴）…的動作…

in Chinese (Simplified)

（美国）亚拉巴马州（写地址时Alabama的缩写）, （用作形容词后缀）…的，与…有关的, （用作名词后缀）…的动作…

in Spanish

abreviatura escrita de “Alabama”…

in Portuguese

forma abreviada de “Alabama”…

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akimbo

akin

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/ˈlaɪf.staɪl/

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/ˈlaɪf.staɪl/

someone's way of living; the things that a person or particular group of people usually do

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1Physical characteristics

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1.1Isotopes

1.2Electron shell

1.3Bulk

2Chemistry

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2.1Inorganic compounds

2.2Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides

3Natural occurrence

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3.1Space

3.2Earth

4History

5Etymology

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5.1Origins

5.2Spelling

6Production and refinement

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6.1Bayer process

6.2Hall–Héroult process

6.3Recycling

7Applications

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7.1Metal

7.2Compounds

8Biology

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8.1Toxicity

8.2Effects

8.3Exposure routes

8.4Treatment

9Environmental effects

10See also

11Notes

12References

13Bibliography

14Further reading

15External links

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Aluminium

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Aluminium (disambiguation).

Chemical element, symbol Al and atomic number 13Aluminium, 13AlAluminiumPronunciationaluminium: /ˌæl(j)ʊˈmɪniəm/ ⓘ(AL-(y)uu-MIN-ee-əm)aluminum: /əˈluːmənəm/ ⓘ[1](ə-LOO-mə-nəm)Alternative nameAluminum (U.S., Canada)AppearanceSilvery gray metallicStandard atomic weight Ar°(Al)26.9815384±0.0000003[2]26.982±0.001 (abridged)[3]

Aluminium in the periodic table

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

Beryllium

Boron

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Fluorine

Neon

Sodium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Silicon

Phosphorus

Sulfur

Chlorine

Argon

Potassium

Calcium

Scandium

Titanium

Vanadium

Chromium

Manganese

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

Zinc

Gallium

Germanium

Arsenic

Selenium

Bromine

Krypton

Rubidium

Strontium

Yttrium

Zirconium

Niobium

Molybdenum

Technetium

Ruthenium

Rhodium

Palladium

Silver

Cadmium

Indium

Tin

Antimony

Tellurium

Iodine

Xenon

Caesium

Barium

Lanthanum

Cerium

Praseodymium

Neodymium

Promethium

Samarium

Europium

Gadolinium

Terbium

Dysprosium

Holmium

Erbium

Thulium

Ytterbium

Lutetium

Hafnium

Tantalum

Tungsten

Rhenium

Osmium

Iridium

Platinum

Gold

Mercury (element)

Thallium

Lead

Bismuth

Polonium

Astatine

Radon

Francium

Radium

Actinium

Thorium

Protactinium

Uranium

Neptunium

Plutonium

Americium

Curium

Berkelium

Californium

Einsteinium

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium

Lawrencium

Rutherfordium

Dubnium

Seaborgium

Bohrium

Hassium

Meitnerium

Darmstadtium

Roentgenium

Copernicium

Nihonium

Flerovium

Moscovium

Livermorium

Tennessine

Oganesson

B↑Al↓Ga

magnesium ← aluminium → silicon

Atomic number (Z)13Groupgroup 13 (boron group)Periodperiod 3Block p-blockElectron configuration[Ne] 3s2 3p1Electrons per shell2, 8, 3Physical propertiesPhase at STPsolidMelting point933.47 K (660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F) Boiling point2743 K (2470 °C, 4478 °F) Density (at 20° C)2.699 g/cm3[4]when liquid (at m.p.)2.375 g/cm3 Heat of fusion10.71 kJ/mol Heat of vaporization284 kJ/mol Molar heat capacity24.20 J/(mol·K) Vapor pressure

P (Pa)

100

1 k

10 k

100 k

at T (K)

1482

1632

1817

2054

2364

2790

Atomic propertiesOxidation states−2, −1, 0,[5] +1,[6] +2,[7] +3 (an amphoteric oxide)ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.61 Ionization energies1st: 577.5 kJ/mol 2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol 3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol (more) Atomic radiusempirical: 143 pm Covalent radius121±4 pm Van der Waals radius184 pm Spectral lines of aluminiumOther propertiesNatural occurrenceprimordialCrystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc) (cF4)Lattice constanta = 404.93 pm (at 20 °C)[4]Thermal expansion22.87×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[4]Thermal conductivity237 W/(m⋅K) Electrical resistivity26.5 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C) Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[8] Molar magnetic susceptibility+16.5×10−6 cm3/molYoung's modulus70 GPa Shear modulus26 GPa Bulk modulus76 GPa Speed of sound thin rod(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.) Poisson ratio0.35 Mohs hardness2.75 Vickers hardness160–350 MPa Brinell hardness160–550 MPa CAS Number7429-90-5 HistoryNamingfrom alumine, obsolete name for aluminaPredictionAntoine Lavoisier (1782)DiscoveryHans Christian Ørsted (1824)Named byHumphry Davy (1812[a])Isotopes of aluminiumve

Main isotopes[9]

Decay

abundance

half-life (t1/2)

mode

product

26Al

trace

7.17×105 y

β+84%

26Mg

ε[10]16%

26Mg

–

27Al

100%

stable

Category: Aluminiumviewtalkedit | references

Aluminium (aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element; it has symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than that of other common metals, about one-third that of steel. It has a great affinity towards oxygen, forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles silver, both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, nonmagnetic, and ductile. It has one stable isotope, 27Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the twelfth-most common element in the universe. The radioactivity of 26Al is used in radiometric dating.

Chemically, aluminium is a post-transition metal in the boron group; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The aluminium cation Al3+ is small and highly charged; as such, it has more polarizing power, and bonds formed by aluminium have a more covalent character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the crust, where it is the third-most abundant element, after oxygen and silicon, rather than in the mantle, and virtually never as the free metal. It is obtained industrially by mining bauxite, a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals.

The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the Hall–Héroult process developed independently by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In World Wars I and II, aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced non-ferrous metal, surpassing copper. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan.

Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to use aluminium salts for metabolism, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies continue.

Physical characteristics

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of aluminium

Of aluminium isotopes, only 27Al is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number.[b] It is the only primordial aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity.[12] The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.[c]

All other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive. The most stable of these is 26Al: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.[13] However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion.[14] Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[15]

The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three metastable states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.[11]

Electron shell

An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an electron configuration of [Ne] 3s2 3p1,[16] with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone.[17] Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, boron, gallium, indium, and thallium; it is also expected for nihonium. Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see below). The electronegativity of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).[18]

High-resolution STEM-HAADF micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.

A free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm.[19] With the three outermost electrons removed, the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom.[19] At standard temperature and pressure, aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a face-centered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal.[20] This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as lead and copper; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.[20] The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group; boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a hexagonal close-packed structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium metal are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity.[21]

Bulk

Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness.[d] Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near ultraviolet and far infrared light, and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation, although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized, which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface.

The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness.[24] Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2, which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).[25] Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.[26]

Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness.[27] The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[28] Aluminium is ductile, with a percent elongation of 50-70%,[29] and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded.[30] It is also easily machined and cast.[30]

Aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor, having around 60% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density.[31] Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).[32] It is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields.[33] The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents.[34]

Chemistry

Main article: Compounds of aluminium

Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier group 13 congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances.[21] Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency;[35] this behavior is similar to that of beryllium (Be2+), and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship.[36]

The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas, whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium, indium, thallium, and nihonium also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.[35][e] Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as Lewis acids and readily form adducts.[37] Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.[38]

Aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction. A fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature)[39] that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed passivation.[35][40] Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints.[41] Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and some organic acids.[42]

In hot concentrated hydrochloric acid, aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminates—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible.[43] Aqua regia also dissolves aluminium.[42] Aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium.[43] The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals.[35] As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper,[28] and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.[21]

Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table.[35]

Inorganic compounds

The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.[35]

Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted. (Data from Baes and Mesmer)[44]

In aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate Ka of 10−5.[12] Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for clarification of water, as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate, [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]−, is formed.

Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides.[35] This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide. However, some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, nitrate, and sulfate. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3·6H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead:[35]

2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 heat→ Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2O

All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite, Na3AlF6.[f] AlF3 melts at 1,290 °C (2,354 °F) and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at 700 °C (1,300 °F).[45]

With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.[g] Aluminium trichloride (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of 192.4 °C (378 °F) but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of BCl3. Aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change.[45] These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes; their Lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the Friedel–Crafts reactions. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a transhalogenation reaction).[45]

Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3, commonly called alumina.[46] It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum, α-alumina;[47] there is also a γ-alumina phase.[12] Its crystalline form, corundum, is very hard (Mohs hardness 9), has a high melting point of 2,045 °C (3,713 °F), has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in ceramics, as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals.[12] The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three main trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known.[12] Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as spinel (MgAl2O4), Na-β-alumina (NaAl11O17), and tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in Portland cement).[12]

The only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide (Al2S3), selenide (Al2Se3), and telluride (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite, with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination.[48]

Four pnictides – aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium phosphide (AlP), aluminium arsenide (AlAs), and aluminium antimonide (AlSb) – are known. They are all III-V semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium, all of which but AlN have the zinc blende structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.[48]

Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals) and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and annealing. Bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.[49]

There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few aluminium(I) compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures.[45] A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable.[50] Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[51] and in stellar absorption spectra.[52] More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.[53]

Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides

Main article: Organoaluminium compound

Structure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.

A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.[54] The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. Pri, Bui, Me3CCH2); for example, triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.[55][56] These dimers, such as trimethylaluminium (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are hard acids and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by Karl Ziegler, most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of ethene and propene. There are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.[55]

The industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride.[57] The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.[57]

Natural occurrence

See also: List of countries by bauxite production

Space

Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million).[58][h] It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen.[58] The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovas: this fusion creates 26Mg, which, upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons.[59] Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore extinct.[59] Unlike for 27Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton. However, the trace quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas;[59] if the original 26Al were still present, gamma ray maps of the Milky Way would be brighter.[59]

Earth

Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron oxide minerals.

Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).[60] Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the Universe at large, because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the Earth's crust, while less reactive metals sink to the core.[59] In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass[29]) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[61] A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.[62] In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.[63] Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.[29]

Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.[64] Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.[65] Native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[66] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.[67]

Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.[68] In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.[69]

History

Main article: History of aluminium

Friedrich Wöhler, the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium

The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum. The first written record of alum, made by Greek historian Herodotus, dates back to the 5th century BCE.[70] The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense.[70] After the Crusades, alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry,[71] was a subject of international commerce;[72] it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.[73]

The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician Paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum.[74] In 1595, German doctor and chemist Andreas Libavius experimentally confirmed this.[75] In 1722, German chemist Friedrich Hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth.[76] In 1754, German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash.[76]

Attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760.[77] The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.[78][79][80] He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825.[81][82] In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium.[83] (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.)[84] He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium.[80] In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.[84] For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.[85]

The statue of Anteros in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.

As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold.[83] The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and companions.[86] Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.[87] Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.[88] Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the Washington Monument, completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak.

The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer Paul Héroult and American engineer Charles Martin Hall; it is now known as the Hall–Héroult process.[89] The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist Carl Joseph Bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the Bayer process, in 1889.[90] Modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.[91]

Prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time.[92] During World War I, major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;[93] during World War II, demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.[94][95][96]

By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.[97] In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of copper,[i] historically second in production only to iron,[100] making it the most produced non-ferrous metal. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,[101] and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.[102] Earth's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent.[91] The aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.[103]

World production of aluminium since 1900

Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971.[98] In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the London Metal Exchange, the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978.[91] The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013.[98]

The real price for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars).[98] Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium;[104] the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost.[105] Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper.[106] Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices.[107] The BRIC countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century.[108] China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli;[109] it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010.[110] In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.[111] In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as energy shortages in China drive up costs for electricity.[112]

Etymology

The names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine, an obsolete term for alumina,[j] a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium.[114] Alumine was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from alumen, the classical Latin name for alum, the mineral from which it was collected.[115] The Latin word alumen stems from the Proto-Indo-European root *alu- meaning "bitter" or "beer".[116]

1897 American advertisement featuring the aluminum spelling

Origins

British chemist Humphry Davy, who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium, which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.[117] It appeared that the name was created from the English word alum and the Latin suffix -ium; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated.[118] The English name alum does not come directly from Latin, whereas alumine/alumina obviously comes from the Latin word alumen (upon declension, alumen changes to alumin-).

One example was Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.[119][k] (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire, i.e. the same metal, as to aluminium.)[121] A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the Royal Society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility.[122] The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum.[123] Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: aluminum dominates in the United States and Canada; aluminium is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world.[124]

Spelling

In 1812, British scientist Thomas Young[125] wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum, which he thought had a "less classical sound".[126] This name caught on: although the -um spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used -ium from the start.[127] Most scientists throughout the world used -ium in the 19th century;[124] and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as French, German, and Dutch.[l] In 1828, an American lexicographer, Noah Webster, entered only the aluminum spelling in his American Dictionary of the English Language.[128] In the 1830s, the -um spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.[127] In 1892, Hall used the -um spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903: it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; but Hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum, the name of a prestigious metal.[129] By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the -ium spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium; in the next decade, the -um spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the American Chemical Society adopted this spelling.[124]

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990.[130] In 1993, they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant;[130] the most recent 2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling.[131] IUPAC official publications use the -ium spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.[m]

Production and refinement

See also: List of countries by primary aluminium production

World's largest producing countries of aluminium, 2019[133]

Country

Output(thousand tons)

China

36,000

India

3,700

Russia

3,600

Canada

2,900

United Arab Emirates

2,700

Australia

1,600

Bahrain

1,400

Norway

1,300

United States

1,100

Iceland

850

Other countries

9,200

Total

64,000

The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the Bayer process into alumina, which is then processed using the Hall–Héroult process, resulting in the final aluminium metal.

Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive.[134] Production of one kilogram of aluminium requires 7 kilograms of oil energy equivalent, as compared to 1.5 kilograms for steel and 2 kilograms for plastic.[135] As of 2019, the world's largest smelters of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates,[133] while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty-five percent.

According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb). Much of this is in more-developed countries (350–500 kg (770–1,100 lb) per capita) rather than less-developed countries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita).[136]

Bayer process

Main article: Bayer process

See also: List of countries by bauxite production

Bauxite is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground. The resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide; the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds:[137]

Al(OH)3 + Na+ + OH− → Na+ + [Al(OH)4]−

After this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)4]− ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.[137]

Hall–Héroult process

Extrusion billets of aluminium

Main articles: Hall–Héroult process and Aluminium smelting

See also: List of countries by aluminium oxide production

The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall–Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950 and 980 °C (1,740 and 1,800 °F)) mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.[42]

Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon—the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion—and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called Söderberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4–0.5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of anthracite; high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02–0.04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2–6 years following a failure of the cathode.[42]

The Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.[42][138]

Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States.[130] Because of this, alternatives to the Hall–Héroult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible.[42]

Recycling

Common bins for recyclable waste along with a bin for unrecyclable waste. The bin with a yellow top is labeled "aluminum". Rhodes, Greece.

Main article: Aluminium recycling

Recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.[139] Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[140] An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.[141]

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;[142] contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[143]

Applications

Aluminium-bodied Austin A40 Sports (c. 1951)

Metal

Aluminium - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table

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Glossary

Allotropes

Some elements exist in several different structural forms, called allotropes. Each allotrope has different physical properties.

For more information on the Visual Elements image see the Uses and properties section below.

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Aluminium

Discovery date

1825

Discovered by

Hans Oersted

Origin of the name

The name is derived from the Latin name for alum, 'alumen' meaning bitter salt.

Allotropes

Aluminium

26.982

Glossary

Group

A vertical column in the periodic table. Members of a group typically have similar properties and electron configurations in their outer shell.

Period

A horizontal row in the periodic table. The atomic number of each element increases by one, reading from left to right.

Block

Elements are organised into blocks by the orbital type in which the outer electrons are found. These blocks are named for the characteristic spectra they produce: sharp (s), principal (p), diffuse (d), and fundamental (f).

Atomic number

The number of protons in an atom.

Electron configuration

The arrangements of electrons above the last (closed shell) noble gas.

Melting point

The temperature at which the solid–liquid phase change occurs.

Boiling point

The temperature at which the liquid–gas phase change occurs.

Sublimation

The transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through a liquid phase.

Density (g cm−3)

Density is the mass of a substance that would fill 1 cm3 at room temperature.

Relative atomic mass

The mass of an atom relative to that of carbon-12. This is approximately the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Where more than one isotope exists, the value given is the abundance weighted average.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

CAS number

The Chemical Abstracts Service registry number is a unique identifier of a particular chemical, designed to prevent confusion arising from different languages and naming systems.

Fact box

Group

Melting point

660.323°C, 1220.581°F, 933.473 K

Period

Boiling point

2519°C, 4566°F, 2792 K

Block

Density (g cm−3)

2.70

Atomic number

Relative atomic mass

26.982

State at 20°C

Solid

Key isotopes

27Al

Electron configuration

[Ne] 3s23p1

CAS number

7429-90-5

ChemSpider ID

4514248

ChemSpider is a free chemical structure database

Glossary

Image explanation

Murray Robertson is the artist behind the images which make up Visual Elements. This is where the artist explains his interpretation of the element and the science behind the picture.

Appearance

The description of the element in its natural form.

Biological role

The role of the element in humans, animals and plants.

Natural abundance

Where the element is most commonly found in nature, and how it is sourced commercially.

Uses and properties

Image explanation

Aircraft fuselages and aluminium foil are just two of the many and varied uses of this element

Appearance

Aluminium is a silvery-white, lightweight metal. It is soft and malleable.

Uses

Aluminium is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts. This is because of its particular properties. It has low density, is non-toxic, has a high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion resistance and can be easily cast, machined and formed. It is also non-magnetic and non-sparking. It is the second most malleable metal and the sixth most ductile.It is often used as an alloy because aluminium itself is not particularly strong. Alloys with copper, manganese, magnesium and silicon are lightweight but strong. They are very important in the construction of aeroplanes and other forms of transport.Aluminium is a good electrical conductor and is often used in electrical transmission lines. It is cheaper than copper and weight for weight is almost twice as good a conductor.When evaporated in a vacuum, aluminium forms a highly reflective coating for both light and heat. It does not deteriorate, like a silver coating would. These aluminium coatings have many uses, including telescope mirrors, decorative paper, packages and toys.

Biological role

Aluminium has no known biological role. In its soluble +3 form it is toxic to plants. Acidic soils make up almost half of arable land on Earth, and the acidity speeds up the release of Al3+ from its minerals. Crops can then absorb the Al3+ leading to lower yields. Our bodies absorb only a small amount of the aluminium we take in with our food. Foods with above average amounts of aluminium are tea, processed cheese, lentils and sponge cakes (where it comes from the raising agent). Cooking in aluminium pans does not greatly increase the amount in our diet, except when cooking acidic foods such as rhubarb. Some indigestion tablets are pure aluminium hydroxide. Aluminium can accumulate in the body, and a link with Alzheimer’s disease (senile dementia) has been suggested but not proven.

Natural abundance

Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust (8.1%) but is rarely found uncombined in nature. It is usually found in minerals such as bauxite and cryolite. These minerals are aluminium silicates. Most commercially produced aluminium is extracted by the Hall–Héroult process. In this process aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then electrolytically reduced to pure aluminium. Making aluminium is very energy intensive. 5% of the electricity generated in the USA is used in aluminium production. However, once it has been made it does not readily corrode and can be easily recycled.

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History

Elements and Periodic Table History

The analysis of a curious metal ornament found in the tomb of Chou-Chu, a military leader in 3rd century China, turned out to be 85% aluminium. How it was produced remains a mystery. By the end of the 1700s, aluminium oxide was known to contain a metal, but it defeated all attempts to extract it. Humphry Davy had used electric current to extract sodium and potassium from their so-called ‘earths’ (oxides), but his method did not release aluminium in the same way. The first person to produce it was Hans Christian Oersted at Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1825, and he did it by heating aluminium chloride with potassium. Even so, his sample was impure. It fell to the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler to perfect the method in 1827, and obtain pure aluminium for the first time by using sodium instead of potassium.

Glossary

Atomic radius, non-bonded

Half of the distance between two unbonded atoms of the same element when the electrostatic forces are balanced. These values were determined using several different methods.

Covalent radiusHalf of the distance between two atoms within a single covalent bond. Values are given for typical oxidation number and coordination.

Electron affinityThe energy released when an electron is added to the neutral atom and a negative ion is formed.

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)The tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself, expressed on a relative scale.

First ionisation energyThe minimum energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its ground state.

Atomic data

Atomic radius, non-bonded (Å)

1.84

Covalent radius (Å)

1.24

Electron affinity (kJ mol−1)

41.762

Electronegativity (Pauling scale)

1.61

Ionisation energies (kJ mol−1)

1st

577.539

2nd

1816.679

3rd

2744.781

4th

11577.469

5th

14841.857

6th

18379.49

7th

23326.3

8th

27465.52

Glossary

Common oxidation states

The oxidation state of an atom is a measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom. It is defined as being the charge that an atom would have if all bonds were ionic. Uncombined elements have an oxidation state of 0. The sum of the oxidation states within a compound or ion must equal the overall charge.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Key for isotopes

Half life

years

days

hours

minutes

seconds

Mode of decay

alpha particle emission

negative beta (electron) emission

β+

positron emission

orbital electron capture

spontaneous fission

ββ

double beta emission

ECEC

double orbital electron capture

Oxidation states and isotopes

Common oxidation states

Isotopes

Isotope

Atomic mass

Natural abundance (%)

Half life

Mode of decay

27Al

26.982

100

Glossary

Data for this section been provided by the British Geological Survey.

Relative supply risk

An integrated supply risk index from 1 (very low risk) to 10 (very high risk). This is calculated by combining the scores for crustal abundance, reserve distribution, production concentration, substitutability, recycling rate and political stability scores.

Crustal abundance (ppm)

The number of atoms of the element per 1 million atoms of the Earth’s crust.

Recycling rate

The percentage of a commodity which is recycled. A higher recycling rate may reduce risk to supply.

Substitutability

The availability of suitable substitutes for a given commodity.

High = substitution not possible or very difficult.

Medium = substitution is possible but there may be an economic and/or performance impact

Low = substitution is possible with little or no economic and/or performance impact

Production concentration

The percentage of an element produced in the top producing country. The higher the value, the larger risk there is to supply.

Reserve distribution

The percentage of the world reserves located in the country with the largest reserves. The higher the value, the larger risk there is to supply.

Political stability of top producer

A percentile rank for the political stability of the top producing country, derived from World Bank governance indicators.

Political stability of top reserve holder

A percentile rank for the political stability of the country with the largest reserves, derived from World Bank governance indicators.

Supply risk

Relative supply risk

4.8

Crustal abundance (ppm)

84149

Recycling rate (%)

>30

Substitutability

Medium

Production concentration (%)

Reserve distribution (%)

Top 3 producers

1) Australia

2) Brazil

3) China

Top 3 reserve holders

1) Guinea

2) Austrailia

3) Brazil

Political stability of top producer

74.5

Political stability of top reserve holder

4.7

Glossary

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a kilogram of a substance by 1 K.

Young's modulus

A measure of the stiffness of a substance. It provides a measure of how difficult it is to extend a material, with a value given by the ratio of tensile strength to tensile strain.

Shear modulus

A measure of how difficult it is to deform a material. It is given by the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain.

Bulk modulus

A measure of how difficult it is to compress a substance. It is given by the ratio of the pressure on a body to the fractional decrease in volume.

Vapour pressure

A measure of the propensity of a substance to evaporate. It is defined as the equilibrium pressure exerted by the gas produced above a substance in a closed system.

Pressure and temperature data – advanced

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

897

Young's modulus (GPa)

70.3

Shear modulus (GPa)

26.1

Bulk modulus (GPa)

75.5

Vapour pressure

Temperature (K)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

Pressure (Pa)

3.06 x 10-10

5.08 x 10-6

0.00256

0.218

6.1

81.4

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Podcasts

Listen to Aluminium Podcast

Transcript :

Chemistry in its element: aluminium (Promo)You're listening to Chemistry in its element brought to you by Chemistry World, the magazine of the Royal Society of Chemistry.(End promo)Chris SmithThis week the chemical cause of transatlantic linguistic friction. Is it an um or an ium at the end? It turns out us Brits might have egg on our faces as well as a liberal smattering of what we call aluminium.Kira J. Weissman'I feel like I'm trapped in a tin box at 39000 feet'. It's a common refrain of the flying-phobic, but maybe they would find comfort in knowing that the box is actually made of aluminium - more than 66000 kg of it, if they're sitting in a jumbo jet. While lamenting one's presence in an 'aluminium box' doesn't have quite the same ring, there are several good reasons to appreciate this choice of material. Pure aluminium is soft. However, alloying it with elements such as such as copper, magnesium, and zinc, dramatically boosts its strength while leaving it lightweight, obviously an asset when fighting against gravity. The resulting alloys, sometimes more malleable than aluminium itself, can be moulded into a variety of shapes, including the aerodynamic arc of a plane's wings, or its tubular fuselage. And whereas iron rusts away when exposed to the elements, aluminium forms a microscopically thin oxide layer, protecting its surface from further corrosion. With this hefty CV, it's not surprising to find aluminium in many other vehicles, including ships, cars, trucks, trains and bicycles.Happily for the transportation industry, nature has blessed us with vast quantities of aluminium. The most abundant metal in the earth's crust, it's literally everywhere. Yet aluminium remained undiscovered until 1808, as it's bound up with oxygen and silicon into hundreds of different minerals, never appearing naturally in its metallic form. Sir Humphrey Davy, the Cornish chemist who discovered the metal, called it 'aluminum', after one of its source compounds, alum. Shortly after, however, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (or IUPAC) stepped in, standardizing the suffix to the more conventional 'ium'. In a further twist to the nomenclature story, the American Chemical Society resurrected the original spelling in 1925, and so ironically it is the Americans and not the British that pronounce the element's name as Davy intended.In 1825, the honour of isolating aluminium for the first time fell to the Danish Scientist Hans Christian Øersted. He reportedly said of his prize, 'It forms a lump of metal that resembles tin in colour and sheen" - not an overly flattering description, but possibly an explanation for airline passengers' present confusion. The difficulty of ripping aluminium from its oxides - for all early processes yielded only kilogram quantities at best - ensured its temporary status as a precious metal, more valuable even than gold. In fact, an aluminium bar held pride of place alongside the Crown Jewels at the 1855 Paris Exhibition, while Napoleon is said to have reserved aluminium tableware for only his most honoured guests.It wasn't until 1886 that Charles Martin Hall, an uncommonly dogged, amateur scientist of 22, developed the first economic means for extracting aluminium. Working in a woodshed with his older sister as assistant, he dissolved aluminium oxide in a bath of molten sodium hexafluoroaluminate (more commonly known as 'cryolite'), and then pried the aluminium and oxygen apart using a strong electrical current. Remarkably, another 22 year-old, the Frenchman Paul Louis Toussaint Héroult, discovered exactly the same electrolytic technique at almost exactly the same time, provoking a transatlantic patent race. Their legacy, enshrined as the Hall-Héroult process, remains the primary method for producing aluminium on a commercial scale - currently million of tons every year from aluminium's most plentiful ore, bauxite. It wasn't only the transportation industry that grasped aluminium's advantages. By the early 1900s, aluminium had already supplanted copper in electrical power lines, its flexibility, light weight and low cost more than compensating for its poorer conductivity. Aluminium alloys are a construction favourite, finding use in cladding, windows, gutters, door frames and roofing, but are just as likely to turn up inside the home: in appliances, pots and pans, utensils, TV aerials, and furniture. As a thin foil, aluminium is a packaging material par excellence, flexible and durable, impermeable to water, and resistant to chemical attack - in short, ideal for protecting a life-saving medication or your favourite candy bar. But perhaps aluminium's most recognizable incarnation is the aluminium beverage can, hundreds of billions of which are produced annually. Each can's naturally glossy surface makes as an attractive backdrop for the product name, and while its thin walls can withstand up to 90 pounds of pressure per square inch (three times that in a typical car tyre), the contents can be easily accessed with a simple pull on the tab. And although aluminium refining gobbles up a large chunk of global electricity, aluminium cans can be recycled economically and repeatedly, each time saving almost 95% of the energy required to smelt the metal in the first place.There is, however, a darker side to this shiny metal. Despite its abundance in Nature, aluminium is not known to serve any useful purpose for living cells. Yet in its soluble, +3 form, aluminium is toxic to plants. Release of Al3+ from its minerals is accelerated in the acidic soils which comprise almost half of arable land on the planet, making aluminium a major culprit in reducing crop yields. Humans don't require aluminium, and yet it enters our bodies every day - it's in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. While small amounts of aluminium are normally present in foods, we are responsible for the major sources of dietary aluminium: food additives, such as leavening, emulsifying and colouring agents. Swallowing over-the-counter antacids can raise intake levels by several thousand-fold. And many of us apply aluminium-containing deodorants directly to our skin every day. What's worrying about all this is that several studies have implicated aluminium as a risk factor for both breast cancer and Alzheimer's disease. While most experts remain unconvinced by the evidence, aluminium at high concentrations is a proven neurotoxin, primarily effecting bone and brain. So, until more research is done, the jury will remain out. Now, perhaps that IS something to trouble your mind on your next long haul flight.Chris SmithResearcher Kira Weissman from Saarland University in Saarbruken, Germany with the story of Aluminium and why I haven't been saying it in the way that Humphrey David intended. Next week, talking of the way the elements sound, what about this one.Brian CleggThere aren't many elements with names that are onomatopoeic. Say oxygen or iodine and there is no clue in the sound of the word to the nature of the element, but zinc is different - zinc, zinc, zinc, you can almost hear a set of coins falling into an old fashioned bath. It just has to be a hard metal. In use, zinc is often hidden away, almost secretive. It stops iron rusting, sooths sunburn, keeps dandruff at bay, combines with copper to make a very familiar gold coloured alloy and keeps us alive but we hardly notice it. Chris SmithAnd you can catch up with the clink of zinc with Brian Clegg on next week's Chemistry in its element. I'm Chris Smith, thank you for listening and goodbye. (Promo)Chemistry in its element is brought to you by the Royal Society of Chemistry and produced by thenakedscientists.com. There's more information and other episodes of Chemistry in its element on our website at chemistryworld.org/elements.(End promo)

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References

Visual Elements images and videos© Murray Robertson 1998-2017. DataW. M. Haynes, ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 95th Edition, Internet Version 2015, accessed December 2014.

Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants, Kaye & Laby Online, 16th edition, 1995. Version 1.0 (2005), accessed December 2014.

J. S. Coursey, D. J. Schwab, J. J. Tsai, and R. A. Dragoset, Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions (version 4.1), 2015, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, accessed November 2016.

T. L. Cottrell, The Strengths of Chemical Bonds, Butterworth, London, 1954. Uses and propertiesJohn Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford University Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2011.

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility - Office of Science Education, It’s Elemental - The Periodic Table of Elements, accessed December 2014.

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Alabama Primary Election Results 2024 - The New York Times

Skip to contentSkip to site index2024 ElectionsToday’s PaperAdvertisementSKIP ADVERTISEMENTAlabama Primary Election ResultsUpdated March 10, 2024, 2:39 PM ETShare full article

2024 Elections Live Updates Key Races How Republicans Voted G.O.P. Delegate Count State Results Share full article LIVE Alabama Primary Election Results Jump to: PresidentHouseBallot Measures President Republican Primary Latest results from March 6 >95% of votes in President, Republican Primary race called President, Republican Primary Candidate Votes Percent Pct.% Chart showing percent Delegates Delegates Del. Donald J. TrumpD. TrumpTrump Winner 497,739 +83.2% 83.2% 50 Nikki HaleyN. HaleyHaley 77,564 +13.0% 13.0% No delegates— UncommittedUncommittedUncommitted 9,755 +1.6% 1.6% No delegates— Total reported 598,035 + Show all candidates 100% of delegates allocated (50 of 50) MobileHuntsvilleMontgomeryBirminghamTuscaloosaMobileHuntsvilleMontgomeryBirminghamTuscaloosa Trump 20 40 60 Vote share Size of lead Votes left See full results Trump 20 40 60 Vote share Size of lead Votes left Democratic Primary Latest results from March 6 >95% of votes in President, Democratic Primary race called President, Democratic Primary Candidate Votes Percent Pct.% Chart showing percent Delegates Delegates Del. Joseph R. Biden Jr.J. BidenBiden*incumbent Winner 167,165 +89.5% 89.5% 52 UncommittedUncommittedUncommitted 11,213 +6.0% 6.0% No delegates— Dean PhillipsD. PhillipsPhillips 8,391 +4.5% 4.5% No delegates— Total reported 186,769 *Incumbent 100% of delegates allocated (52 of 52) Biden 50 60 70 Vote share Size of lead See full results Biden 50 60 70 Vote share Size of lead LIVE Our reporters are on the ground at polling places across the U.S. A Democratic congressional candidate in Michigan will air the first I.V.F. ad of the election cycle. The ‘uncommitted’ vote effort aimed at Biden shifts its focus to Washington State. What to Expect Polls close at 8 p.m. Eastern time. In the 2022 state primaries, first results were reported 23 minutes later, and the last update of the night was at 3:06 a.m. Eastern time with 99 percent of votes reported. Voters do not register by party, but they could only participate in one party’s primary. The state requires an excuse to vote absentee. Alabama is one of five states on Tuesday holding presidential primaries as well as its state primary, which will include races for state and congressional offices. If no candidate receives a majority of the vote in a state primary race, the top two candidates will advance to an April runoff. Sign up to get notified when results are in. The On Politics newsletter is your guide to the 2024 elections. Get it sent to your inbox. U.S. House status Reporting Winner Runoff Democratic Republican U.S. House, All Races District Dist. Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in 1 Dem. 1 (D) Tom HolmesT. HolmesHolmes Winner Uncontested › 1 Rep. 1 (R) Barry MooreB. MooreMoore 51% Winner Jerry CarlJ. CarlCarl*incumbent 49% >95% › 2 Dem. 2 (D) Shomari FiguresS. FiguresFigures 43% Advanced to runoff Anthony DanielsA. DanielsDaniels 22% Advanced to runoff >95% › 2 Rep. 2 (R) Dick BrewbakerD. BrewbakerBrewbaker 40% Advanced to runoff Caroleene DobsonC. DobsonDobson 26% Advanced to runoff >95% › 3 Rep. 3 (R) Mike RogersM. RogersRogers*incumbent 82% Winner Bryan NewellB. NewellNewell 13% >95% › 4 Rep. 4 (R) Robert AderholtR. AderholtAderholt*incumbent 80% Winner Justin HolcombJ. HolcombHolcomb 20% >95% › 5 Rep. 5 (R) Dale StrongD. StrongStrong*incumbent Winner Uncontested › 6 Dem. 6 (D) Elizabeth AndersonE. AndersonAnderson Winner Uncontested › 6 Rep. 6 (R) Gary PalmerG. PalmerPalmer*incumbent 83% Winner Gerrick WilkinsG. WilkinsWilkins 11% >95% › 7 Dem. 7 (D) Terrycina SewellT. SewellSewell*incumbent 93% Winner Christopher DavisC. DavisDavis 7% >95% › 7 Rep. 7 (R) Christian HornC. HornHorn 58% Winner Robin LitakerR. LitakerLitaker 42% >95% › + Show all Advanced to runoff *Incumbent status Reporting Winner Runoff Democratic Republican Ballot Measures Ballot Measures Modify Local Bill Requirements YesYesYes 49% NoNoNo 51% Winner >95% of votes in Other Races Appeals Court Appeals Court Place Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in Place 1 Rep. Place 1 (R) Christy EdwardsC. EdwardsEdwards*incumbent Winner Uncontested Place 2 Rep. Place 2 (R) Chad HansonC. HansonHanson*incumbent 56% Winner Stephen ParkerS. ParkerParker 44% >95% Place 3 Rep. Place 3 (R) Terry MooreT. MooreMoore*incumbent Winner Uncontested *Incumbent Criminal Appeals Court Criminal Appeals Court Place Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in Place 1 Rep. Place 1 (R) Richard MinorR. MinorMinor*incumbent Winner Uncontested Place 2 Rep. Place 2 (R) Rich AndersonR. AndersonAnderson 55% Winner Thomas GovanT. GovanGovan 45% >95% Place 3 Rep. Place 3 (R) Bill ColeB. ColeCole*incumbent Winner Uncontested *Incumbent Public Service Commission Public Service Commission Race Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in Rep. (R) Twinkle CavanaughT. CavanaughCavanaugh*incumbent 61% Winner Robert L. McCollumR. McCollumMcCollum 39% >95% *Incumbent Supreme Court Supreme Court Race Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in Chief Justice Dem. Chief Justice (D) Greg GriffinG. GriffinGriffin Winner Uncontested Chief Justice Rep. Chief Justice (R) Sarah StewartS. StewartStewart 61% Winner Bryan TaylorB. TaylorTaylor 38% >95% Place 1 Rep. Place 1 (R) Chris McCoolC. McCoolMcCool Winner Uncontested Place 2 Rep. Place 2 (R) Tommy BryanT. BryanBryan*incumbent Winner Uncontested Place 3 Rep. Place 3 (R) Will SellersW. SellersSellers*incumbent Winner Uncontested *Incumbent State Board of Education State Board of Education District Dist. Candidates Candidates Percent of votes in Votes in 1 Rep. 1 (R) Jackie ZeiglerJ. ZeiglerZeigler*incumbent Winner Uncontested 3 Rep. 3 (R) Kelly MooneyK. MooneyMooney 51% Winner Charlotte MeadowsC. MeadowsMeadows 23% 95% 5 Dem. 5 (D) Tonya ChestnutT. ChestnutChestnut*incumbent Winner Uncontested 5 Rep. 5 (R) David PerryD. PerryPerry Winner Uncontested 7 Rep. 7 (R) Allen LongA. LongLong 64% Winner Doug BachussD. BachussBachuss 22% 84% *Incumbent 2024 Primary Results Alabama Alaska Arkansas California Colorado Idaho Iowa Maine Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nevada New Hampshire North Carolina North Dakota Oklahoma South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington, D.C. Share full article

Source: Election results and race calls are from The Associated Press. The Times publishes its own estimates for each candidate’s share of the final vote and the number of remaining votes, based on historic turnout data and reporting from results providers. These are only estimates, and they may not be informed by reports from election officials.Produced by Leanne Abraham, Michael Andre, Camille Baker, Neil Berg, Michael Beswetherick, Matthew Bloch, Irineo Cabreros, Nate Cohn, Alastair Coote, Annie Daniel, Saurabh Datar, Leo Dominguez, Andrew Fischer, Martín González Gómez, K.K. Rebecca Lai, Jasmine C. Lee, Alex Lemonides, Ilana Marcus, Alicia Parlapiano, Elena Shao, Charlie Smart, Urvashi Uberoy, Isaac White, Ashley Wu and Christine Zhang. Additional reporting by Patrick Hays; production by Amanda Cordero and Jessica White.

Editing by Wilson Andrews, Lindsey Rogers Cook, William P. Davis, Amy Hughes, Ben Koski and Allison McCartney. Share full articleAdvertisementSKIP ADVERTISEMENTSite IndexSite Information Navigation© 2024 The New York Times CompanyNYTCoContact UsAccessibilityWork with usAdvertiseT Brand StudioYour Ad ChoicesPrivacy PolicyTerms of ServiceTerms of SaleSite MapCanadaInternationalHelpSubscriptionsManage Privacy Preferences

Who is Katie Britt? Meet the Alabama senator who gave SOTU response

is Katie Britt? Meet the Alabama senator who gave SOTU responseWelcome to Miami — not Total solar eclipse Dream Chaser details Start the day smarter ☀️U.S. Elections Sports Entertainment Life Money Tech Travel OpinionONLY AT USA TODAY:Newsletters For Subscribers From the Archives Crossword eNewspaper Magazines Investigations Podcasts Video Humankind Just Curious Best-selling BooklistOUR PORTFOLIO:10Best Reviewed Coupons Homefront Blueprint Best Auto InsuranceBest Pet Insurance Best Travel Insurance Best Credit Cards Best CD Rates Best Personal Loans Home Internet POLITICSState of the Union AddressAdd TopicWho is Katie Britt? What to know about senator that delivered State of the Union response Riley BegginUSA TODAYWASHINGTON – Sen. Katie Britt, R-Ala., is new to the U.S. Senate but her star is rapidly rising as evidenced by her rebuttal speech to President Joe Biden's State of the Union address Thursday.But who is the first-term lawmaker? Britt, 42, is the youngest Republican woman to ever be elected to the upper chamber and is considered a rising star among a party dominated by older men. On Thursday night, she'll also offer a contrast to President Joe Biden, the oldest sitting president in American history.She has two children still in middle and high school and said in a statement ahead of the speech that the Republican Party is the party of "hard-working parents and families."“President Biden is out of touch and off the pace — and the consequences are endangering America’s future,” she said. “I’m looking forward to sharing our positive vision to secure the American Dream for generations to come.”Britt's response:GOP's Katie Britt on State of the Union: Biden a 'dithering and diminished leader'Prep for the polls: See who is running for president and compare where they stand on key issues in our Voter GuideBritt serves on the powerful Senate Appropriations Committee, as well as the Rules Committee and the Banking, Housing and Urban Development Committee."I think she represents the future of the Republican Party," Sen. Lindsey Graham, R-S.C., told USA TODAY. Asked why she was chosen to deliver the speech, he said: "She's got young children, she's a very articulate, optimistic kind of person. I think she's a great pick."Britt's office declined an interview request from USA TODAY.Sen. Katie Britt's rebuttal after State of the Union draws on political experienceBritt got her start in politics in former Alabama Sen. Richard Shelby's office as a press secretary, before going to law school and beginning work as an attorney. More than a decade after first working in Shelby's office, she rejoined his staff on his reelection campaign and then as his chief of staff. She also served as the president and CEO of the Business Council of Alabama."I don't remember ever seeing somebody come into the Senate and hit the ground running faster than she has, both because of her innate abilities and because of her experience," said Sen. Marco Rubio, R-Fla.Former President Donald Trump endorsed her when she ran for Senate in 2022, after pulling his support for her Republican primary opponent, former U.S. Rep. Mo Brooks. Trump initially opposed Britt, who had received funding from a super PAC aligned with Sen. Mitch McConnell, R-Ky., but he threw his weight behind her campaign when polls indicated she had a huge lead over Brooks.When she was sworn in to office in 2023, she became Alabama's first female senator, replacing her former boss.And now, Britt is preparing to lay out Republican priorities following Biden's State of the Union address. The assignment of delivering the rebuttal to the president's annual speech is framed as a chance for rising stars to make their mark. Prominent current and former officials such as Sen. Joni Ernst, R-Iowa, Sen. Tim Scott, R-S.C. and former House Speaker Paul Ryan have all given the GOP response in the past.Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich said Sunday that Britt's speech is even a "big audition" to be Trump's pick for vice president if she "rises to the occasion."But it can also be an opportunity for public blunders that can make a lasting impression. For example, former Louisiana Gov. Bobby Jindal's reputation took a hit after a "cheesy" and awkward response to then-President Barack Obama's 2009 State of the Union speech.The shadow of the Alabama Supreme Court's IVF rulingBritt's speech will come just over two weeks after the Supreme Court in her home state issued a decision that rocked families across the country: The Alabama high court determined that frozen embryos used in IVF are children and have legal protections under state law.The decision kicked off a frenzy among patients and doctors grappling with its implications for people attempting to conceive, often after years of struggling to have children. The University of Alabama at Birmingham and other facilities in the state quickly paused some infertility treatments after the ruling due to concerns about criminal liability surrounding the handling of embryos.Republicans came out en masse to note their support for the procedure. They also called upon the Alabama state legislature to ensure families can continue to use IVF without fears of legal issues.Britt, too, came out in support of IVF after the ruling. She has said she believes life begins at conception and identifies as "pro-life," but she said in the wake of the decision that "defending life and ensuring continued access to IVF services for loving parents are not mutually exclusive."It's not an argument her critics have bought. The Democratic National Committee called Britt "an anti-choice extremist" in a statement."Make no mistake: Britt and her fellow MAGA extremists are backing a cruel, dangerous, and unpopular anti-choice agenda that would outlaw abortion nationwide and risk access to IVF for Americans trying to grow their family," DNC spokesperson Alex Floyd said.When Democrats in the Senate tried to advance a bill that would enact federal protections for the fertility procedure, Republicans largely would not commit to supporting it. Sen. Cindy Hyde-Smith, R-Miss., blocked the proposal on the Senate floor.But as Britt responds to the president on Thursday, IVF and concerns surrounding the procedure are widely expected to be part of the conservative lawmaker's remarks.Featured Weekly AdAbout Us Newsroom Staff Ethical Principles Responsible Disclosure Request a Correction Press Releases Accessibility Sitemap Subscription Terms & Conditions Terms of Service Privacy Policy Your Privacy ChoicesContact Us Help Center Manage Account Give Feedback Get Home Delivery eNewspaper USA TODAY Shop USA TODAY Print Editions Licensing & Reprints Advertise With Us Careers Internships Support Local BusinessNews Tips Submitting letters to the editor Podcasts Newsletters Mobile Apps Facebook X Instagram LinkedIn Threads Post YouTube Reddit Flipboard10Best Reviewed Best-selling Booklist Jobs Sports Betting Sports Weekly Studio Gannett Classifieds Coupons Homefront Home Internet Blueprint Auto Insurance Pet Insurance Travel Insurance Credit Cards Banking Personal Loans LLC Formation Payroll Software© 2024 USA TODAY, a division of Gannett Satellite Information Network, L

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Who is Katie Britt? Meet the Alabama senator who gave SOTU response

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bitpie钱包app下载中文版|al

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Al Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster

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Alabama - Wikipedia

AL | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary

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Aluminium - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table

Alabama Local News, Breaking News, Sports & Weather

Alabama Democratic and Republican primary election results and maps 2024 | CNN Politics

Alabama Primary Election Results 2024 - The New York Times

Who is Katie Britt? Meet the Alabama senator who gave SOTU response

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